The Republic - Book 1 - Theme Of Justice Essay - 2346 Words

The subject matter of the â€Å"Republic† is the nature of justice and its relation to human existence. Book I of the â€Å"republic† contains a critical examination of the nature and virtue of justice. Socrates engages in a dialectic with Thrasymachus, Polemarchus, and Cephalus, a method which leads to the asking and answering of questions which directs to a logical refutation and thus leading to a convincing argument of the true nature of justice. And that is the main function of Book I, to clear the ground of mistaken or inadequate accounts of justice in order to make room for the new theory. Socrates attempts to show that certain beliefs and attitudes of justice and its nature are inadequate or inconsistent, and present a way in which those†¦show more content†¦Socrates, which recognizes that justice is an attribute of the good person, still sees Cephalus’ view as only possible with sufficient material wealth. Cephalus is not a reflective person, it is obviously suggested when he states that a person can satisfy the requirements of a just and good life by possessing the right disposition and equipped with adequate wealth. But that is all that his life experiences have shown him and unlike Socrates, Cephalus is not a man for whom unexamined life is not worth living. Therefore Socrates’ response to Cephalus is not a direct confrontation. Socrates comments that the value of talking to old men is that they may teach us something about the life they have traversed. They may tell us the benefits of old age, however, Plato exploits Cephalus’ account of old age to suggest that old age is not a source of wisdom. The wisdom and goodness which enables Cephalus to see his age as a beneficial state need not come with old age. To most men, as Cephalus recognizes, old age is a source of misery and resentment. Only those who have order and peace with themselves can â€Å"accept old age with equanimity.† And so it turns out that neither youth nor old age are conditions which enable people to perceive the just way to live; its character and a right disposition. Cephalus supposes that material possession is responsible for the correct perception of what makes a life good. But take theShow MoreRelatedThe Republic - Book 1 - Theme of Justice2417 Words   |  10 Pagessubject matter of the Republic is the nature of justice and its relation to human existence. Book I of the republic contains a critical examination of the nature and virtue of justice. Socrates engages in a dialectic with Thrasymachus, Polemarchus, and Cephalus, a method which leads to the asking and answering of questions which directs to a logical refutation and thus leading to a convincing argument of the true nature of justice. And that is the main function of Book I, to clear the groundRead More Intangible Justice is in the Soul Essay1352 Words   |  6 PagesIntangible Justice is in the Soul Plato’s Republic, although officially divided into ten books, can be separated into two very distinct sections. The first section, roughly spanning Books I through IV, contains a rather tangible investigation of justice in practice. Namely, the section considers what acts or occurrences are just, either in a city or in a man. The second section, beginning around Book V and continuing through the end of the dialogue, deals with the much more abstract issue ofRead MoreThis week’s reading centered on the social contract between God and the Israelites. The reader,600 Words   |  3 Pagessocial contract between God and the Israelites. The reader, who had grown up familiar with the Exodus, found a much deeper meaning and contextual understanding in this week’s reading. Specifically, the reader’s attention focused on two key aspects: 1) God’s control over nature as the contextual focus, and 2) how Exodus, Deuteronomy and Leviticus set forth blue prin ts blue prints for a society. Moreover, the reader was previously familiar with the more traditional version of the commandments in DeuteronomyRead MoreThe Apology Is Plato s Retelling Of Socrates s Trail1599 Words   |  7 PagesApology is Plato’s retelling of Socrates’s trail. Within his account, he portrays Socrates as a confident, but almost haughty, and reasonable man. The main philosophical themes that Plato presents through Socrates are wisdom, justice, and his purpose in the community. Socrates is at this trial because he has been accused of two things: 1) â€Å"Socrates is guilty of wrongdoing in that he busies himself studying things in the sky and below the earth; he makes the worse into the stronger argument, and he teachesRead MoreDepiction Of Struggle And Division889 Words   |  4 Pagescommon themes amongst them. By doing so, we were supposed to be able to more deeply understand each text and the argument each was making. Throughout the readings, th e most prominent themes were that of struggle and division, though it is certainly more prevalent and obvious in certain texts than others. Though all the texts depict division and struggle, they focus on different societal divisions This depiction of struggle first became clear during the reading of Plato s Republic in book I, whereRead MorePlatos Philosophy and Works1915 Words   |  8 Pagesï » ¿Prompt: Book X of the Republic does not reflect the rest of Platos work. On the one hand, Plato stages a final showdown between philosophy and literature (or myth). On the other hand, the book concludes with the elaborate legend of Ers journey into the afterlife creating a determining myth factor. The prompt invites one to make sense of this contradiction. What is the point of the final myth? What does Plato manage to convey through it that he wasnt able to show or persuade with the philosophicalRead MoreGender Based Violence During And After Conflict1319 Words   |  6 Pagesnothing new. It has been going on for hundreds of years all over the world (Burn) and many other documents, articles and websites cite this statement. This specific topic I chose because I was unaware of it before reading about it in our course work book â€Å"Women Across Cultures,† by Burn. This matter is new to me and I would like to discuss how this issue of violence connects women around the globe. I would like to refresh your memory about this topic from week two, chapter 2, (Burn) and our UniversalRead MoreThe s Defence Of Injustice1733 Words   |  7 PagesGlaucon’s defence of injustice, which he presents to Socrates in book 11 of Plato’s The Republic. For the purposes of this paper, I will focus on the overriding theme in Glaucon’s argument; that we are only just for the sake of consequences and will conclude by agreeing with this notion. Glaucon, dissatisfied with previous appraisals of justice, seeks to challenge Socrates by strengthening Thrasymachus’ defence of injustice in book 1. ‘This is exactly what he gives us – 3 arguments that support Thrasymachus’Read MoreReconciling The Divergence Of The Nature Of Man Between Classic And Modern Thinkers1425 Words   |  6 Pagesthe Nature of Man between Classic and Modern Thinkers Within Book 2 of Plato’s work The Republic, Socrates’ companion Glaucon describes the tale of the ring of Gyges, challenging Socrates on the nature of man. Within the ring of Gyges scenario, Glaucon posits that when an individual has the power granted by a ring of absolute invisibility that grants impunity, â€Å"no one [†¦] would be so incorruptible that he would stay on the path of justice or stay away from other people’s property, when he could takeRead MoreAn Analysis Of The Oedipus And Plato 1636 Words   |  7 PagesKAUFMANN’S OEDIPUS AND PLATO’S SOCRATES In Chapter Four of his book, Tragedy and Philosophy, Walter Kaufmann claims that Sophocles’ play Oedipus Rex is one of the greatest tragedies ever written in part because it presents so vividly five characteristics of human life which make our existence so tragic. The purpose of this paper will be, first, to present Kaufmann’s view and, second, to apply these same characteristics to Plato’s dialogues in general and to the characters in Plato’s dialogues,

The Southerners Responsibility for the American Civil War...

The Southerners Responsibility for the American Civil War The reasons a nation goes to war are usually various and often complicated, and it is no different with the American Civil War. There are many reasons supporting the view that the Southerners are responsible for the outbreak of the Civil War, it has been argued strongly that it was the Southerners hold of the controversial issue of slavery that led to the increasingly differing sections of the United States. However, the counterargument is that the Southerners felt under growing pressure to secede from the Union by aggressive Northern abolitionists and that it was the Northern reaction to the secession that ultimately led to the Civil†¦show more content†¦It was considered that the South lagged behind the North only because the Southerners failed to take advantage of available opportunities. The Northerners called for economic diversification, saying that slaves could be profitably employed in industry and other urban jobs. However the planters of the South ignored such advi ce and continued to invest their profits into land and slavery to grow more of the staple crops. Many Southerners got rich by using slave labour to produce agricultural staples, so would be very reluctant to have to give it up in order to placate the North. However, Northerners were clearly demonstrating that trade, commerce, banking, shipping and manufacturing could be equally or more rewarding. Southern slave owners largely ignored these investment opportunities, leading to increasing sectional tensions, because earning maximum profits was not their primary motivation. However, these Southern slaveholders constantly misjudged other Americans. Apologists for slavery, such as Calhoun and Hammond, were wrong in their assumptions that Northern society was dominated by the Industrial Revolution pre-Civil War, for although industrialism was rising rapidly, there were far too few factories in the North at that time to establish the distribution of political power. The North, like the Sou thShow MoreRelatedFjkhgk1491 Words   |  6 Pages_____________ 1.|Congressmen who favored vigorous Reconstruction measures held that| A)|although particular southerners had erred, the Union itself had endured through the Civil War.| B)|the Reconstruction process outlined in the Constitution should be closely followed.| C)|the president had sole responsibility for Reconstruction.| D)|the Confederate states, by seceding and making war against the United States, lost their status as states and should now be treated as conquered territories.| Read MoreReconstruction During The Civil War966 Words   |  4 Pages Reconstruction is a time period after the Civil War ended in 1877. We view it as something that resembles a transformation, shifts in the southern U.S. after the Civil War. This was when slavery inequality, some political, economic, and social issues were, in some ways, balanced. The categories of issues that arose throughout this â€Å"restoration† were aspects such as involving the Confederacy into the Union, abolishing along with figuring out what to do with our free blacks, and addressing conflictRead MoreGone with the Wind Review1011 Words   |  5 Pagesalso depicts life during the civil war, and after the civil war. Although the films depiction of southern life is somewhat reasonable, there are some historical inaccuracies. Because the movie is based in Scarlett O’Hara’s romances, the film romancitizes southern life and omits or twists details about the lives of the less fortunate. Despite these inaccuracies, Gone with the Wind does a good job of illustra ting the transformation of Southern culture during the Civil War. The film’s portrayal of whiteRead MoreReconstruction : The Failure Of Reconstruction1529 Words   |  7 PagesReconstruction: the failure Reconstruction was a failure because African American were still not equal to White Americans. The Emancipation Proclamation was proclaimed in January 1, 1863. It freed more than 3 million slaves in the Confederate states by January 1, 1863, blacks enlisted in the Union Army in large numbers, reaching some 180,000 by war’s end. Reconstruction began in 1865 right after the Civil War. Abraham Lincoln created a plan for Reconstruction that called for ReconciliationRead MoreHistorical Report on Race756 Words   |  4 PagesThe force of migration was unique in American history. In the mid 1500s, European mariners started bringing colored Africans to America as slaves. The Africans were brought over by ship where 1 out of every 5 captives died by time the ship got to the Atlantic seacoast. The slaves were chained below docks in very cramped spaces while they were being transported. When they reached America they were auctioned off to owners who used them primaril y as plantation workers. Slave owners had the rightRead MoreThe United States And The Civil War1726 Words   |  7 PagesCompromise. A great deal of controversy and political turmoil surrounded these changes, intensifying divides in the nation. â€Å"Many Southerners ignored the differences between free soil and abolitionism saw the entire North locked in the grip of demented leaders bent on civil war.† One particular event, John Brown’s Raid on Harper’s Ferry in 1859, seemed to confirm Southerners’ false perception of the North. Early morning on October 18th, 1859, John Brown laid on the floor of the federal armory officeRead MoreThe Civil War And The Emancipation Proclamation Essay1117 Words   |  5 Pagesbecoming a liberated for many African Americans during the 19th century. But soon after the political,social,and economic effects of slaves getting their freedoms back many bills or propositions were made to oppose the reform movement. The context of the time period was pre-civil war and during the early 19th century where many large movements in religion, economy and social class were taking place and coming to fruition. It also took place afterwards of the civil wars and the emancipation proclamationRead MoreThe Well Known African American Activist, Ida B. Wells863 Words   |  4 PagesThe well-known African-American activist, Ida B. Wells was born on July 16, 1862, during the Civil War. The author, Mia Bay illustrated the life of Wells in her novel, To Tell the Truth Freely: The Life of Ida B. Wells Bay demonstrated Well’s accomplishments as a free African-American and the many struggles she faced after Reconstruction ended and the Jim Crow Laws were enforced. The events in her life were relatively distinct, but according to the Burns-Belfry Museum and the historical marker labeledRead MoreRecostruction Era and African American Integration1333 Words   |  5 PagesMany Americans and people around the world remember the Civil War for a number of reasons. Some will argue that Northern victory in the war preserved the world’s first democracy. Others argue that the Civil War did not weaken the United States; it merely exposed the flaws in government and where it could be made stronger henceforth. Often, many forget that the Civil War affected the fate of nearly four million Americans, or slaves, as they were then labeled. The leaders of the Reconstruction wereRead MoreThe Responsibilities Of Directing The Slave Labor1637 Words   |  7 PagesThere are some Civil War scholars who maintain the theory that the responsibilities of directing the slave labor was the catalyst for the downward spiral of Southern women’s morale. While the opinions about the institution of slavery varied during the Civil War, depending on circumstances such as location and amount of slaves, there were two general opinions from Southern women. Either Southern women felt that slavery was a bl essing or a burden. Women such as Catherine Edmondston saw their slaveholding

Civil War Weapons Free Essays

Lori Robinson HIS 226-IN1 Module 4 Weapons of the Civil War I have to load a weapon? Oh no! Let’s see, first I have to get my cartridge out of the box. I really hate the taste of gunpowder in my mouth when I rip open the cartridge with my teeth. Then I have to pour that powder into the barrel of the gun. We will write a custom essay sample on Civil War Weapons or any similar topic only for you Order Now What next? Remove the rammer, ram the barrel to set the ammo, and then return the rammer. Then to prime the gun, I have to set my cap, and now I can finally fire a single shot. Am I really expected to remember to do all these steps, for every shot, while at the same time people are shooting at me?What about all the smoke and noise? The noise of the guns and people next to me screaming in pain, or breathing their last breath. It is all so confusing. Is there not any other weapon in can use? The musket I am using now is most likely the Enfield rifle. It is what is called a cap lock rifle. It’s probably the most popular shoulder arm of both armies. The South did have more in the beginning of the war, as they put in a large order from England, and it took a lot of time to produce the second order for the North. There are two types of muskets used during this war.The smoothbore, which is not very accurate, nor does it have a very long range. The rifled-musket is not only more accurate, but because of the rifling, or grooves in the barrel, that cause the ball to spiral, it has a much longer range. Another category of shoulder arms is the carbine. The carbine, used most often by the cavalry, was shorter and lighter in weight than a musket. Carbines are breech-loaded, which means it is loaded between the barrel and the stock. This makes it easier to reload while still on horseback. There are about twenty different types of carbines, and mostly used by Northern troops.Many were actually produced in the North. One exception to this is the Maynard carbine. It is one of the favorites of the Confederate cavalry. Even though it is manufactured in Massachusetts, it continued to be shipped to Confederate States for several months after the war began. People claimed they were using the guns as Southern sportsmen. What if I want a sidearm? (Otherwise known as a pistol. ) There are hundreds of manufacturers and model being used, but there are about 5 or 6 favorites, including the Remington, the Keer, and the Derringer. The Colt was the most commonly used, but the LeMat is one of the most powerful killing models. It is the one carried by Generals J. E. B Stuart and P. T. G. Beauregard. This revolver holds nine rounds plus the capacity of also holding a load of buckshot in a lower barrel. One problem with the LeMat, though is that it doses not hole standard ammunition. Most weapons use either . 44 or . 36 caliber projectiles, while the LeMat fires . 35, . 40, or . 42 caliber ammunition. I wonder what it would be like to be part of an artillery gun crew. It takes five men to load a cannon.Let’s see if I can get all the procedures right. I have not gotten to do this yet, but have watched some of my buddies during drills. The first thing they do is to cover the vent hole. Then another man will ream his â€Å"worm† down the barrel to remove anything left for the last shot. Then a third man rams a sponge down the barrel to put out any hot embers. Good thing they do this, as I would not want any of my friends to reload power on top of a fire already in the barrel. Next the powder monkey comes to present the rounds to the loader, who then puts it in the barrel and it is rammed down the barrel again.Now another man sets the primer cord, and after everyone is cleared of the cannon, it is fired. There are two types of artillery cannons being used in this war — field guns and howitzers. The both use anywhere from six to thirty-two pound projectiles for ammunition. Just as with muskets there are smoothbores, rifled barrels and breech-loaded cannons. The rifled barrel cannons were used less often because as the barrels were made of bronze, a softer metal than the iron of the musket, the rifling was often worn smooth with continuous use.The field gun has a longer barrel and is usually fired straight ahead, or maybe a slight 5 degree upward angle. The howitzer has a shorter barrel, used larger ordnance but a small charge. By the way, ordnance is just a military term for cannonball. The field gun had a longer range, but the howitzer was more accurate, with a higher arc. The longer range of the field gun is not even fully used most of the time, as the gunner must be able to see his target in order to adjust his shots. Are these all the weapons used in this war?Or course not! There are the â€Å"edged† weapons. In most cases all edged weapons, are nearly negligible in as far as how many causalities these weapons accounted for. These include sabers, swords, bayonets and military cutlery. Military cutlery is just another fancy term for hand-to-hand weapons, such as the Bowie knife. I heard a funny story that was passed down from a Georgia boy about another type of edged weapon, the pike. It seems the Georgia governor, Joe Brown, at a time when there was a shortage of firearms, ordered 10,000 pikes.He imagined that he could create effective soldiers to defend themselves on a battlefield with this mid-evil type of weapon that was actually nothing more than a two-foot knife attached to a six-foot pole. The soldiers were trained using these weapons, but I wouldn’t want to go to a gunfight with nothing more than a knife, no matter how long the knife was. In fact, the 34th Georgia regiment was close to mutiny at the thought of going into battle armed with only the pike. Governor Brown wants his men to charge the enemy with â€Å"terrible impetuosity†.He told him men; about the pike â€Å"at least it will never misfire or waste a single charge of powder. † The pikes were only meant as a last-ditch effort to arm the men with whatever could be found until more firearms could be furnished. Other weapons like gunships and submarines are being used in the war, but I will save those stories for later. I need to finish this story now so I can get some rest and prepare for battle in the morning. How to cite Civil War Weapons, Essays

The Competitive Advantages and Disadvantages of The Cheesecake Factory free essay sample

The Cheesecake Factory opened its first casual upscale restaurant in 1978 in Beverly Hills, California. The restaurant came by way of the â€Å"The Cheesecake Factory† store founded by Evelyn and Oscar Overton. Their son David Overton set out to offer their guests more than just cheesecake. What The Cheesecake Factory set out to accomplish created more competitive advantages for itself. Although all businesses have weaknesses; The Cheesecake Factory still has much strength to utilize to offset and minimize its weaknesses. A strength that The Cheesecake Factory possess that most restaurants don’t is that they are an all in one restaurant, bakery, and bar. There are not many restaurants that operate a full bakery and bar under one roof. The fact that I can order a small portion of dessert to eat after my meal or just come in to buy some whole desserts or cheesecakes more than exceeds my expectations. If you don’t want sit down for a four course meal you are more than welcome to take a seat at their full service bar. We will write a custom essay sample on The Competitive Advantages and Disadvantages of The Cheesecake Factory or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page There you can enjoy some drinks maybe an appetizer or two and kick back, relax, and watch their flat screen TV’s. The Cheesecake Factory has strength in numbers. Not only do they have over a 170 restaurants in over 37 different states including Puerto Rico. But they have approximately 200 menu items. These items include but are not limited to seafood, steaks, chicken, burgers, pasta, pizza, salads, and we can’t forget desserts. Aside from regular desserts they have approximately 50 variety flavors of cheesecake. And if that’s not enough restaurants and food items on the menu; The Cheesecake Factory operates two bakery production facilities. The role of these bakeries is to produce high quality cheesecakes to sale at their restaurants. The Cheesecake Factory believes that by doing this it puts them in a competitive position against other restaurants. Another strength that The Cheesecake Factory holds is value of quality. They do this by giving excellent service and hospitality and targeting high profile restaurant locations. The restaurant strives to meet and exceed customers’ expectations by training and keeping high quality staff members. The staffers have to execute their concepts and deliver a sense of personal commitment to their core values and culture of excellence. No matter what state I’m in I always seem to see The Cheesecake Factory in a high profile mall or location. This is true because they try to target areas like this on purpose. They call this flex site layouts and locations. It is the flexibility to accommodate urban and suburban layouts. The Cheesecake Factory is also known for its distinctive contemporary design, dà ©cor and style. It truly does give an exclusive high-end feel while dining. By investing in high quality staff members, locations, and dà ©cor; The Cheesecake Factory has proven to its competitors that they are in it to win it. While Cheesecake Factory offers a 10 and younger children’s menu if you ask for it; you will not see it on the regular menu. Families want to go to places that they can take their kids, food is quickly served, and prices are reasonable. Consumers now days are looking for fast casual restaurants or quick service restaurants. Casual restaurants are places like Chipotle and Quiznos. And quick service restaurants are like McDonalds and Taco Bell. There seems to be a growing number of these restaurants because they are a consumer’s demand. The main consumers that demand these types of restaurants are families with kids. These fast casual and quick serve restaurants gives The Cheesecake Factory an appearance of weakness. Not only do these casual restaurants serve quick food with kid friendly menus, but a lot of them offer an early breakfast menu as well. The Cheesecake Factory offers a brunch menu only on Sundays, giving these other restaurants a head start on service. The one way The Cheesecake Factory can utilize its strengths to minimize its weaknesses is its ability to expand into international markets. They currently have one licensing agreement in the Middle East. With this  agreement it will provide development of 22 restaurants by 2016 in five different countries. Not only will this be competitive, but I believe this will work out for them because a lot of these quick serve restaurants have already done this with much success. Take McDonalds for instance, they went global and they now have over 1300 McCafe’s worldwide in dozens of countries. If The Cheesecake Factory uses the same strategy they can minimize and overcome their weaknesses. The role of competition in the restaurant marketplace is fiercely growing every day. The Cheesecake Factory is just one of many restaurants trying to make leverage by using new strategies and technology. It seems that The Cheesecake Factory has developed the right strategic plans in place to keep up with its competitors and eliminate is weaknesses.

Road to revolution free essay sample

The Sugar Act of 1764 was eased when the British asked Colonists to pay 3 cents tax on sugar. The British didnt even ask permission from the Colonists when doing this. The Colonists hated being controlled by the British government. The Stamp Act of 1765 was made when all newspapers, documents, etc. Have a British seal/stamp on them, which cosseted money (this was an easier way for British government to get money). The Colonists were very angry so they revolted against the government and decided to write a response about the Stamp Act to the British Parliament.Quartering Act of 1765 when Colonists had to provide food and shelter to British troops. The Declaratory Act of 1766 this law was passed to stop the Colonists from forming their own government. The Townsend Act of 1767 was when Britain raised taxes on glass, paint, oil, lead, paper, and tea. The Boston Massacre was the street fight that occurred when Colonists were throwing snowballs at a building and a mob of patriots came to stop them and someone yelled fire when the patriots started to kill many Colonists on that street. We will write a custom essay sample on Road to revolution or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page The Boston Tea Party of 1773 was when Colonists refused to pay for tea and didnt help take it off the ships and instead threw the tea overboard into the water. The Intolerable Act was when the Parliament closed the British Harbor until the Colonists paid for the destroyed tea. The Boston economy was based on trade and soon people were loosing their Jobs. So, Colonists decided to help them (Colonists who went with Boston were known as Patriots and the ones who stayed with Britain were known as Loyalists).The 1st Continental Congress of 1774 was when the 13 loonies (56 delegates) came together in the Philadelphia Hall where they discussed the issues relating to the liberty and rights of the Colonies (for the first time all colonies are working together). They eventually decide that the British Parliament that they dont have the right to pass laws for the Colonists. The Lexington Concord of 1775 was when Paul Revere went to get more soldiers in the militia for the Americans. The British thought that the American colonists were storing heavy weaponry.So, the British went to Lexington to stop them and so a few colonists were ailed. The 2nd Continental Congress of 1775 was when the 13 colonies tried to manage war effort and slowly moving towards independence, making the Declaration of Independence. The Continental Congress progressed on their efforts, which then brought about a national government, which became the United States of America. Thomas Paine: was a writer who published the book Common Sense. This book was to inform Colonists about the thoughts on questioning the British Parliament.He became friends with Benjamin Franklin who told him to go to America. The Declaration of Independence of 1776 is for the freedom of many English colonists in America. The authors who created and came up with the laws was: Benjamin Franklin, John Adams, and Thomas Jefferson. Battle of Yorktown: this war occurred after the signing of the Declaration of Independence. This document officially ended the war between the Americans, British, and French at Yorktown, Virginia. The Treaty of Paris: Officially ended all of war. The French recognized America as its own independent nation. Road To Revolution free essay sample Writs of Assistance search any home they 1760 orders from goods. Wanted to. Not court that allow individual writs like customs officers warrants. To conduct general searches for contraband. During the French and Indian war. Colonist lost family Resentment, and colonists were not members; risking their they crossed into appreciative and Proclamation of lives to win the war, the Ohio Valley regarded new policies videotaped warfare anyway. Between the Indians, Resulted in warfare acknowledged tit Natives. T that Indians Reaction was owned lands, immediate and which they understandably were residing negative and white men were removed from the area Sugar Act 1764 -Refined sugar imported by the colonies Taxed all luxury items like silk, and molasses. SST Committee of Correspondence in Mass. Boston experimented with Boycotts No taxation without representation Colonist were angry by sugar act and many smuggled molasses in. Northern colon sees organized protest and other colonies warned royal governors that tax was unfair. We will write a custom essay sample on Road To Revolution or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Currency Act 1764 Colonies suffered contain souse shortage of cue reentry which affected trading. Stamp Act 1 765 Law that taxed all printed paper items such as newspaper Quartering Acts 1765- two acts of the British parliament in the 18th century. The colony issued bills Prevailed the mercantile of credit, a form of system, providing cheap paper money that was raw materials for the mother country Smoldering resentment backed by anticipated tax collections. Required colonists to pay taxes on all printed papers. Required colonists to shelter and feed decodes. The colonists acted out Petitions to the King with violence because to control Parliament. They thought that all these taxation were Boycotts, massive violence. Creation of unfair. Everyone was the Sons of Liberty. Affected, everyone buys newspapers The colonists feared that Parliament wanted to Protests in colonial use the troops to control Assemblies. Petitions the movement and their to the KING freedom. Protests started to slow down, Ben Franklin Repeal of Stamp Act 1767- Was repealed because Of boycotts Declaratory ActSame day as above- Parliaments response to repeal of the Stamp Act Townsend Duties 1767 indirect taxes on tea, glass, paint. Voted to repeal the Stamp Acting March 1766. On the same day as the Parliament passed the Declaratory Acts, asserting that the British government had free and total legislative power over the colonies. Parliament proclaimed that they did have the right to tax colonies Law taxing items like tea, glass, paint, lead. Will pay for vice admiralty courts, and debt. Enforcing trade laws; Rejoicing Violently opposed.

Gun Control Essays

Gun Control Essays Gun Control Essay Gun Control Essay In early December of 1999. William Manies. 52. of Fountain City. TN returned to his former office to acquire even with the 45-year-old adult female who fired him a month before. Manies. a carry concealed weapon license holder. walked into the office and pointed a. 38-caliber handgun at the victim and executed her while she sat in her chair. speaking on the phone. This violent act and other really serious offenses like it are committed on a regular footing. There are many little things that the authorities could make to restrict the figure of pistol related deceases. but the most obvious thing is to ordain stricter pistol control Torahs and to do it more hard to acquire a carry concealed weapon license. These types of stairss are necessary to salvage lives. Gun control Torahs like the Brady Handgun Violence Prevention Act. better known as the Brady Law. have already lowered gun related deceases. The Brady Law puts limitations on the purchasing and merchandising of guns. Its biggest part to salvaging American lives is that it requires background cheques and that keeps handguns out of the custodies of violent felons. November 30 was the 8th day of remembrance of the sign language of the Brady Law. Since the jurisprudence went into consequence. gun related deceases in the United States have dropped a singular 27 per centum. from 39. 595 in 1993 to 28. 874 in 1999. The diminution in gun deceases is proof that gun control Torahs work. said Sarah Brady. Chair of the Brady Campaign to Prevent Gun Violence. :

The Stiff Competition in the Mobile Phone Industry Case Study - 1

The Stiff Competition in the Mobile Phone Industry - Case Study Example Today, the largest players in the market include Nokia, Samsung, Apple, LG, and RIM. The features and functions of these phones have improved drastically in the last ten years. Most of the phones in use by 2005 were only equipped with basic functions of making receiving calls in addition to very few functions. However, stiff competition and research have greatly modified these phones over time. Many features like internet, navigation and phone size are continuously improved. In the same way, companies are very aggressive in their promotion strategies and are continuously searching for new markets. In terms of pricing, the present phone industry sees to present products for people in all walks of life. While phone prices have generally reduced over time, it is important to note that companies like Apple and Nokia produce very quality phones which are sold at slightly higher prices. Many of these additions have been realized after the launch of the iPhone (Wilkins, 45).

The Stress of Working in a Call Center Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

The Stress of Working in a Call Center - Essay Example Each day that I reported for work, I was on the receiving end of the harshest berating, the meanest insults, and the most intellectually insulting comments that one would only wish on his worst enemy. To make matters worse, I had no right to stand up for myself and let them know that I was just a person tasked to receive their complaints. I wasn't the enemy. I was there to help. Or at least, let them vent to a certain degree. But these clients took complaining to a whole new level. Every time I was demeaned as a person, I felt like shouting at the person on the line, or simply disconnecting the headset and running off crying or to let off some steam. But I wasn't allowed to do that. I needed to stay on the line no matter how I felt. Rather than taking my anger out on the clients, I made sure that I spent at least an hour a day releasing my anger and stress. They say nothing beats boxing when it comes to releasing stress. That is exactly what I did. Each day, I would get home from my shift and pop a boxing game into my X-Box Kinect and jab away for a few minutes in order to remove the stress and anger that I had pent up inside of me. Then on the days that I had off, I made sure to get a full body massage in order to relax my body, mind, and soul even for only a few hours a day. These two regular stress-busting practices of mine were definitely the way to go. I would return to work refreshed and with a new perspective on my job situation and how to deal with it. I learned that work stress could actually be released even on the job if I simply had a way to let it out as I did my task. That was when the stress ball massager became a daily part of my work life. Every time I got a problem call, I take the stress ball and squeeze it as I felt my tension and anger building up inside of me. All of the negative emotions that I wanted to unleash on the client transferred to the stress ball.  

Single Tuned Harmonic Filter Design Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Single Tuned Harmonic Filter Design - Essay Example Ã' uÃ'•tÐ ¾merÃ'•, Ã'•tÐ °rting with hÐ ¾me Ð °Ã'€Ã'€liÐ °nÃ' eÃ'• tÐ ¾ interfÐ °Ã' ing with Ã' Ã ¾mmuniÃ' Ã °tiÐ ¾n equiÃ'€ment Ð °nd temÃ'€erÐ °ture riÃ'•e in Ð °ll Ã' Ã ¾nneÃ' ted eleÃ' triÃ' Ã °l elementÃ'•. TÐ ¾ mÐ °ke the netwÐ ¾rk mÐ ¾re reliÐ °ble Ð °nd Ã'•eÃ' ure, Ã'•tÐ °ndÐ °rdÃ'• Ð ¾f Ã'€Ð ¾wer quÐ °lity Ð °re Ð °Ã'€Ã'€lied in mÐ °ny diÃ'•tributiÐ ¾n netwÐ ¾rkÃ'•, Ð °nd limitÃ'• Ð °re deÃ'•igned fÐ ¾r tÐ ¾tÐ °l hÐ °rmÐ ¾niÃ'  diÃ'•tÐ ¾rtiÐ ¾n (THD). TherefÐ ¾re, the filterÃ'• Ð °re uÃ'•ed tÐ ¾ Ã' Ã ¾ntrÐ ¾l hÐ °rmÐ ¾niÃ' Ã'• in the netwÐ ¾rk. TÐ ¾ deÃ'•ign Ã'•uÃ' h filterÃ'•, it iÃ'• neÃ' eÃ'•Ã'•Ð °ry tÐ ¾: MinimizÐ °tiÐ ¾n Ð ¾f tÐ ¾tÐ °l Ã' Ã ¾Ã'•tÃ'• Ð ¾f the filter (Ð ¾bjeÃ' tive funÃ' tiÐ ¾n) Ã'•ubjeÃ' t tÐ ¾ Ã' ertÐ °in vÐ °lueÃ'• Ð ¾f filter Ã'€Ð °rÐ °meterÃ'• (Ã' Ã ¾nÃ'•trÐ °intÃ'•) iÃ'• the biggeÃ'•t Ã' hÐ °llenge fÐ ¾r filter deÃ'•ign. Ð n Ð ¾Ã'€timizÐ °tiÐ ¾n Ã'€rÐ ¾Ã' eÃ'•Ã'• Ã' Ã °n be defined Ð °Ã'• Ð ° mÐ °ximizÐ °tiÐ ¾n (Ð ¾r minimizÐ °tiÐ ¾n) Ð ¾f Ð °n Ð ¾bjeÃ' tive funÃ' tiÐ ¾n, f(x), Ã'•ubjeÃ' t tÐ ¾ Ã'•Ð ¾me Ã' Ã ¾nÃ'•trÐ °intÃ'• Ð ¾f the Ã'€rÐ ¾blem, g(x). TheÃ'•e Ã' Ã ¾nÃ'•trÐ °intÃ'• define the feÐ °Ã'•ible regiÐ ¾n, i.e. Ð ° regiÐ ¾n thÐ °t Ã' Ã ¾ntÐ °inÃ'• Ã'€Ð ¾Ã'•Ã'•ible Ã'•Ð ¾lutiÐ ¾nÃ'• Ð ¾f the Ã'€rÐ ¾blem. The Ð ¾bjeÃ' tive funÃ' tiÐ ¾n iÃ'• tÐ ¾ minimize the tÐ ¾tÐ °l Ã' Ã ¾Ã'•t Ð ¾f the filter Ã' Ã °n be fÐ ¾rmulÐ °ted Ð °Ã'•: where F iÃ'• the tÐ ¾tÐ °l filter Ã' Ã ¾Ã'•t; R the filter reÃ'•iÃ'•tÐ °nÃ' e; XÐ ¡ the fundÐ °mentÐ °l frequenÃ' y Ã' Ã °Ã'€Ð °Ã' itive reÐ °Ã' tÐ °nÃ' e; XL the fundÐ °mentÐ °l frequenÃ' y induÃ' tive reÐ °Ã' tÐ °nÃ' e; Q the quÐ °lity fÐ °Ã' tÐ ¾r; X0 the reÃ'•Ð ¾nÐ °nt reÐ °Ã' tÐ °nÃ' e; min Ð °nd mÐ °x: denÐ ¾te the minimum Ð °nd the mÐ °ximum limitÃ'•, reÃ'•Ã'€eÃ' tively. The Ã'€rÐ ¾blem Ð ¾f filter deÃ'•ign iÃ'• Ã'•tÐ °rted frÐ ¾m the limit thÐ °t twÐ ¾ Ð ¾r mÐ ¾re hÐ °rmÐ ¾niÃ'  Ã' Ã ¾mÃ'€Ð ¾nentÃ'• Ð °re generÐ °ted in the vÐ ¾ltÐ °ge Ð °nd Ã' urrent wÐ °veÃ'• due tÐ ¾ the nÐ ¾n-lineÐ °r Ã' hÐ °rÐ °Ã' teriÃ'•tiÃ' Ã'• Ð ¾f the reÃ' tifierÃ'•. The uÃ'•e Ð ¾f Ã' Ã ¾nventiÐ ¾nÐ °l LÐ   teÃ' hnique iÃ'• Ã'€Ð ¾Ã'€ulÐ °r, Ð ¾ne mÐ °y uÃ'•e due tÐ ¾ the Ã'•imÃ'€liÃ' ity Ð ¾f Ã'•yÃ'•tem mÐ ¾deling Ð °nd Ð ¾bjeÃ' tiveÃ'•. The quÐ °lity fÐ °Ã' tÐ ¾r determineÃ'• hÐ ¾w Ã'•hÐ °rÃ'€ly the filter iÃ'• tuned tÐ ¾ the tÐ °rget hÐ °rmÐ ¾niÃ'  Ð ¾rder.

Market Foreign Management

Market Foreign Management Market Foreign Management 1.0 INTRODUCTION The different types of entry modes, to penetrate a foreign market, arise due to globalisation. The latter has drastically changed the way business conduct at international level. Owing to advances in transportation, technology and communications, nowadays practically every business of any size can supply or distribute goods, services, or intellectual property. However, when companies deal with international markets, it is complicated as the companies must be prepared to surmount differences in currency issues, language problems, cultural norms, and legal and regulatory regimes. Only the largest companies have the capital and knowledge to overcome these complications on their own. Many other businesses simply do not have the means to efficiently and affordably deal with all those variables in foreign jurisdictions, without a partner in the host country. Foreign market entry mode has been defined by Root (1987) as â€Å"an institutional arrangement that makes possible the entry of a company’s products, technology, human skills, management, or other resources into a foreign country†. There are a broad variety of different entry modes that can generally be categorised into export entry modes, contractual entry modes and investment entry modes. A distinction is also made between equity based and non-equity based foreign market entry modes. Entry modes vary considerably in terms of not only cost incurred by firms but also benefits and disadvantages provided to firms. In chapter 1, the study will be introduced and where definition of Modes of Entry will be given. In chapter 2 the Literature Review, the factors affecting the choice of entry will be explained. Furthermore there will be the description to each type of foreign entry mode and its theoretical advantages and disadvantages. Then in chapter 3 will proceed with the analytical and findings in each entry modes will be illustrated through a real case study. The recent case of firm going abroad will not be taken in the analysis with the purpose of getting enough information to evaluate each entry modes undertake in the case study namely Mc Donald’s Franchising entry mode, Toyota joint venture in United State, Nokia Greenfield investment in Hungary, and Nike Export entry mode. In Chapter 4, there will conclusion and recommendation of this study. 2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 Choice of entry mode Firms all over the world are internationalizing in highly increasing speed, and thus the selection of a proper entry mode in a foreign market may have significant and far reaching consequences on a firm’s success and survival. In the selections of a suitable entry method, firms are significantly influenced by situational factors and key dimensions. The influencing factors include various factors such as country risk, socio-cultural distance, firm specific factors, government regulations, and international experience. The key dimensions differentiating market entry modes are the varying levels of management control, barriers to entry, commercial and political risks, equity investment, rapidity, level of resources commitment to the foreign market, and flexibility that each mode posses and also the evaluation of competitors’ entry methods. Driscoll analyzed the characteristics of export, contractual and investment entry modes through the five aspects namely control; dissemination risk; resource commitment; flexibility and ownership. Driscoll explained each of the characteristics as follows : Control refers to that extent of a firm in governs the production process, co-ordinate activities, logistical and marketing and so on. Dissemination risk refers to the extent to which a firm’s know-how will be expropriated by a contractual partner. Resource commitment refers to the financial, physical and human resources that firms commit to a host market. Flexibility assesses that whether a firm can change the entry modes quickly and with low cost in the face of evolving circumstances. Ownership refers to the extent of a firm’s equity participation in an entry mode. In Erramilli Rao (1993), it is suggested that to conceptualize a firm’s desired level of different mode characteristics without considering its actual entry mode used, the efficacy of mode choice models would be improved. Based on this advice, Driscoll (1995) introduced a dynamic mode choice framework as shown in table 2 above. He believes that â€Å"a diverse range of situational influences that could bear on a firm’s desire for certain characteristic of mode choice†. Some factors would influence a firm to choose a desired entry mode. He also considers the gap between desired model and actual one and takes alternative mode characteristics into account when a firm chooses foreign market entry mode. Driscoll’s study emphasises that there is no optimal foreign market entry modes under all conditions. Therefore, a firm cannot just consider an institutionalizing mode; it needs to consider the characteristics of modes, the firm factors, environmental factors a nd other factors when it chooses entry mode. 2.2 Descriptions of the different modes of Foreign market entry 2.2.1. Export Entry Modes Export mode is the most common strategy to use when entering international markets. Exporting is the shipment of products, manufactured in the domestic market or a third country, across national borders to fulfill foreign orders. Shipments may go directly to the end user, to a distributor or to a wholesaler. Exporting is mainly used in initial entry and gradually evolves towards foreign-based operations. Export entry modes are different from contractual entry modes and investment entry modes in a way that they are directly related to manufacturing. Export can be divided into direct and indirect export depending on the number and type of intermediaries. 2.2.1.1 Direct exporting (sell to buyers) Direct exporting means that the firm has its own department of export which sells the products via an intermediary in the foreign economy namely direct agent and direct distributor. This way of exporting provides more control over the international operations than indirect exporting. Hence, this alternative often increases the sales potential and also the profit. There is as well a higher risk involved and more financial and human investments are needed. There are differences between distributors and agents. The basis of an agent’s selling is commissions, while the distributors’ income is a margin between the prices the distributor buys the product for and the final price to the wholesalers or retailers. In contrast to agents the distributors usually maintain the product range. The agents also do not position the products, and do not hold payments while the distributors do both and as well as provide customers with after sales services. Using agents or distributors to introduce the products to a foreign market will have the advantages that they have knowledge about the market, customs, and have established business contacts. Advantages of Direct Export: Access to the local market experience and contacts to potential customers. Shorter distribution chain( compared to indirect exporting) More control over marketing mix ( especially with agents) Local selling support and services available Disadvantages of Direct Export: Little control over market price because of tariffs and lack of distribution control ( especially with distributors) Some investment in sales organisation required (contact from home base with distributor or agents) Cultural difference, providing communications problems and information filtering ( transaction cost occur) Possible trade restrictions 2.2.1.2. Indirect exporting (sell to intermediaries) Indirect exporting is when the exporting manufactures are using independent organisations that are located in the foreign country. The sale in indirect exporting is like a domestic sale, and the company is not really involved in the global marketing, since the foreign company itself takes the products abroad. Indirect export is often the fastest way for a company to get its products into a foreign market since customer relationships and marketing systems are already established. Through indirect export, it is the third party who will handle the whole transactions. This approach for exporting is useful for companies with limited international expansion objectives and if the sales are primarily viewed as a way of disposing remaining production, or as marginal. The types of indirect export are as follows: Export management companies Export trading companies Export broker agents Advantages of Indirect export: Limited resources and investment required High degree of market diversification is possible as the company utilize the internationalization of an experienced exporter. Minimal risk ( market and political) NO export experience required Disadvantages of Indirect export: No control over marketing mix elements other than product An additional domestic member in the distribution chain may add costs, leaving smaller profit to producer Lack of contact with market ( no market knowledge acquired) Limited product experience( based on commercial selling) 2.2.2 Contractual Entry Modes Contractual entry modes are long term non-equity alliance between the company that wants to internalise and the company in target country for entry mode. There are many types of contractual entry mode namely technical agreements, Service contracts, managements, contract manufacture, Co-production agreements and others. The most use contractual entry modes are Licensing, Franchising and Turnkey projects which is going to be explained below. 2.2.2.1 Licensing Licensing concerns a product rights or the method of production marketing the product rights. These rights are usually protected by a patent or some other intellectual right. Licensing is when the exporter, the licensor, sells the right to manufacture or sell its products or services, on a certain market area, to the foreign party (the licensee). Based on the agreement, the exporter receives a onetime fee, a royalty or both. The royalty can vary, often between 0.125 and 15 per cent of the sales revenue. In other words in a licensing agreement, the licensor offers propriety assets to the licensee. The latter is in the foreign market and has to pay royalty fees or made a lump sum payment to the licensor for assets like e.g. trademark, technology, patents and know-how. Licensing agreement’s content is usually quite complex, wide and periodic. Other than the intellectual property rights, the licensing contract might also include turning-in unprotected know-how. In this licensing contract, the licensor is committed to give all the information to the licensee about the operation. There are many types of licensing arrangements. In a licensing arrangement, the core is patents and know-how, which can be completed by trademarks, models, copyrights and marketing and management’s know-how. Licensing contract is divided into three main types of licensing: Product licensing, the idea of licensing is to agree on usage, manufacturing or marketing right of the whole product, a partial product, a component or a product improvement, Method licensing, the method licensing agreement turns in the right to use a certain manufacturing method or a part of it and also possibly the right to use model protection. Representation licensing agreement is usually done within two companies that are concentrated on project deliveries, in this case the contract will relate to for example projecting systems, sharing manufacturing and marketing procedures. Advantages of licensing: The ability to enter several foreign markets simultaneously by using several licensees or one licensee with access to a regional market, for example the European Union. Enter market with high trade barriers. It is a non-equity mode, therefore licensor make profit quickly without big investments. The firm does not have to bear the development costs and risks associated with opening a foreign market. Licensing also saves marketing and distribution costs, which are left for the licensee. Licensing also enables the licensor to get insight of licensee’s market knowledge, business relations and cost advantages. The licensor decreases the exposure to economic and political instabilities in the foreign country. Can be used by inexperienced companies in international business Avoid the cost to customer of shipping large bulky products to foreign markets Disadvantages of licensing: There is a risk that the licensee may become a competitor once the term of the agreement concludes, by using the licensor’s technology and taking their customers. Not every company can use this entry model unless in possess certain type of intellectual property right or the name of the company is of enough interest to the other party. The licensor’s income from royalties is not as much as would be gained when manufacturing and marketing the product themselves. There is another risk that the licensee will underreport sales in order to lower the royalty payment 2.2.2.2 FRANCHISING Franchising is a form of licensing, which is most often used as market entry modes for services such as fast foods, business to-consumer services and business-to-business services. Franchising is somewhat like licensing where the franchiser gives the franchisee right to use trademarks, know-how and trade name for royalty. Franchising does not only cover products (like licensing) but it usually contains the entire business operation including products, suppliers, technological know-how, and even the look of the business The normal time for a franchisee agreement is 10 years and the arrangement may or may not include operation manuals, marketing plan and training and quality monitoring. The idea of the franchising chain is that all parties use a uniform model in order to make the customer of a franchising chain may feel that he is dealing with franchisor’s company itself. In fact, regarding to the law, the customer is dealing with independents companies that have even have different owners. Franchising agreement usually includes training and offers management services, as the operations are done in accordance with the franchisor’s directions. Franchising has especially spread to areas, where certain selling style, name and the quality of service are crucial. Franchisee has different customs on the payments to the franchisor. Normally when a company joins the franchising chain it pays a one-time joining fee. As the operation goes on, the franchisee pays continues service fess that usually are based on the sales volumes of the franchisee company. (Koch 2001). Advantages of franchising: Same as licensing above Like with licensing, the franchisor gain local knowledge of the market place and in this case the domestic franchisee is highly motivated The fast expansion to a foreign market with low capital expenditures, standardised marketing, motivated franchisees and taking of low political risk. Disadvantages of franchising: Same as in licensing above, Since franchising requires more capital initially, it is more suitable to large and well-established companies with good brand images. So small firm get often problem to use this entry modes Home country franchisor does not have daily operational control of foreign store. There is a risk that franchisees may not perform at desired quality level. more responsibilities ,more complicated and greater commitment to foreign firm than licensing or exports 2.2.2.3 Turnkey project In turnkey projects, the contractor agrees to handle every detail of the project for a foreign client, including the training of operating personnel. At completion of the contract, the foreign client is handed the key to a plant that is ready for full operation. Hence we get the term turnkey. The company, who make the turnkey project, works overseas to build a facility for a local private company or agency of a state, province or municipality. This is actually a means of exporting process technology to another country. Typically these projects are large public sector project such as urban transit stations, commercial airport and telecommunications infrastructure. Sometimes a turnkey project such as an urban transit system takes the form of a built-operate-transfer or a built-own-operate-transfer project. A sophisticated type of counter trade, in which the builder operates and may also own a public sector project for a specified period of years before turning it over to the government. Advantages of Turnkey Projects: They are a way of earning great economic returns from the know-how required to assemble and run a technologically complex process, for example contractor must train and prepare owner to operate facility Turnkey projects may also make sense in a country where the political and economic environment is such that a longer-term investment might expose the firm to unacceptable political and/or economic risk. Less risky than conventional FDI Disadvantages The firm that enters into a turnkey deal will have no long-term interest in the foreign country. The firm that enters into a turnkey project may create a competitor. If the firms process technology is a source of competitive advantage, then selling this technology through a turnkey project is also selling competitive advantage to potential and/or actual competitors. 2.2.3 Investment Entry Modes Investment entry modes are about acquiring ownership in a company that is located in the foreign market. In other word, the activities within this category involve ownership of production units or other facilities in the overseas market, based on some sort of equity investment. Several companies want to have ownership in some or all of their international ventures. This can be achieved by joint ventures (equity based), acquisitions, green-field investment. A joint venture is a contractual arrangement whereby a separate entity is created to carry on trade or business on its own, separate from the core business of the participants. A joint venture occurs when new organizations are created, jointly owned by both partners. At least one of these partners must be from another country than the rest and the location of the company must be outside of at least one party’s home country. Typically, a company forming a joint venture will often partner with one of its customers, vendors, distributors, or even one of its competitors. These businesses agree to exchange resources, share risks, and divide rewards from a joint enterprise, which is usually physically located in one of the partners’ jurisdictions. The contributions of joint venture partners often differ. The local joint venture partner will frequently supply physical space, channels of distribution, sources of supply, and on-the ground knowledge and information. The other partner usually provides cash, key marketing personnel, certain operating personnel, and intellectual property rights. Joint venture is an equity entry mode. Ownership of the venture may be 50% for each party, or may be other proportions with one party holding the majority share. In order to make a joint venture remain successful on a long-term-basis, there must be willingness and careful advance planning from both parties to renegotiate the venture terms as soon as possible. When multiple partners participate in the joint venture, the venture maybe called a consortium. Advantages of a Joint venture: Joint venture makes faster access to foreign markets. The local partner to the joint venture may have already established itself in the marketplace and often will have already obtained, or have access to, government contacts, lines of credit, regulatory approvals, scarce supplies and utilities, qualified employees, and cultural knowledge. Upon formation of the Joint venture, the non-resident partner has access to the local partner’s pre-established ties to the local market. When the development costs and/or risks of opening a foreign market are high, a firm might gain by sharing these costs and/or risks with a local partner. In many countries, political considerations make joint ventures the only feasible entry mode. The reputation of the resident partner gives the joint venturecredibility in the local marketplace, especially with existing key suppliers and customers. Disadvantages of Joint venture: Shared ownership can lead to conflicts and battles for control if goals and objectives differ or change over time. Joint venture can foreclose other opportunities for entry into a foreign marketplace. It can be difficult for a joint venture to independently obtain financing, particularly debt financing. That is, in part, because Joint venture are usually finite in their duration and lack permanence. Thus, the parents of a joint venture should expect either to adequately capitalise the entity up front or to guarantee loans made to the joint venture. Another potential disadvantage of joint venture a firm that enters into a joint venture risks giving control of its technology to its partner and there is the possibility you might wind up turning your own joint venture partner into a competitor. However, this danger can be ameliorated by non-competition, non-solicitation, and confidentiality provisions in the joint venture agreement. Strategic alliance is when the mutual coordination of strategic planning and management that enable two or more organisations to align their long term goals to the benefit of each organisation and generally the organisations remain independent. Strategic alliances are cooperative relationships on different levels in the organisation. Licensing, joint ventures, research and development partnerships are just few of the alliances possible when exploring new markets. In other words, strategic alliances can be described as a partnership between businesses with the purpose of achieving common goals while minimising risk, maximising leverage and benefiting from those facets of their operations that complement each other’s. A strategic alliance might be entered into for a one-off activity, or it might focus on just one part of a business, or its objective might be new products jointly developed for a particular market. Generally, each company involved in the strategic alliance will benefit by working together. The arrangement they enter into may not be as formal as a joint venture agreement. Alliances are usually accomplished with a written contract, often with agreed termination points, and do not result in the creation of an independent business organisation. The objective of a strategic alliance is to gain a competitive advantage to a company’s strategic position. Strategic alliances have increased a great deal since globalisation became an opportunity for companies. There are different types of strategic alliances: 1) Marketing alliances where the companies jointly market products that are complementary produced by one or both of the firms. 2) A promotional alliance refers to the collaboration where one firm agrees to join in promotion for the other firm’s products. 3) Logistics alliance is one more type of cooperation where one company offers, to another company, distribution services for their products. 4) Collaborations between businesses arise when the firms do not for example have the capacity or the financial means to develop new technologies. Advantages of Strategic alliance: Increased leverage Strategic alliances allow you to gain greater results from your company’s core strengths Risk sharing A strategic alliance with an international company will help to offset your market exposure and allow you to jointly exploit new opportunities. Opportunities for growth Strategic alliances can create the means by which small companies can grow. By â€Å"marrying† your company’s product to somebody else’s distribution, or your RD to a partner’s production skills, you may be able to expand your business overseas more quickly and more cheaply than by other means. Greater responsiveness By allowing you to focus on developing your core strengths, strategic alliances provide the ability to respond more quickly to change and opportunity. Disadvantages of strategic alliance: High commitment – time, money, people Difficulty of identifying a compatible partner Potential for conflict between the partners A small company risks being subsumed by a larger partner Strategic priorities change over time Political risk in the country where the strategic alliance is based If the relationship breaks down, the cost/ownership of market information, market intelligence and jointly developed products can be an issue. 2.2.3.3 Wholly owned subsidiaries A company will use a wholly owned subsidiary when the company wants to have 100 percent ownership. This is a very expensive mode where the firm has to do everything itself with the company’s financial and human resources. Thus, more it is the large multi national corporations that could select this entry mode rather than small and medium sized enterprises. A wholly owned subsidiary could be divided in two separate ways Greenfield investment and Acquisitions. 2.2.3.3.1Greenfield Investment Greenfield investment is a mode of entry where the firm starts from scratch in the new market and opens up own stores while using their expertise. It involves the transfer of assets, management talent, and proprietary technology and manufacturing know-how. It requires the skill to operate and manage in another culture with different business practices, labour forces and government regulations. The degree of risk varies according to the political and economic conditions in the host country. Despite these risks many companies prefer to use this mode of entry because of its total control over strategy, operation and profits. Advantages of Greenfield investment: A wholly owned subsidiary gives a firm the tight control over operations in different countries that are necessary for engaging in global strategic coordination (i.e., using profits from one country to support competitive attacks in another). A wholly owned subsidiary maybe required if a firm is trying to realize location and experience curve economies. Local production lessens transport/import-related costs, taxes fees. Availability of goods can be guaranteed, delays may be eliminated. More uniform quality of product or service. Local production says that the firm is willing to adapt products services to the local customer requirements Disadvantages of Greenfield investment: Higher risk exposure namely political risk and economic risk Heavier pre-decision information gathering research evaluation â€Å"Country-of-origin† effects can be lost by manufacturing elsewhere. Establishing a wholly owned subsidiary is generally the most costly method of serving a foreign market. 2.2.3.3.2 Acquisitions Acquisition is a very expensive mode of entry where the company acquirers or buys an already existing company in the foreign market. Acquisition is one way of entering a market by buying an already existing brand instead of trying to compete and launch the company’s products on the market and thereby lowering the chance of a profitable product. Acquisition is a risky alternative though, because the culture of the corporation is hard to transfer to the acquired firm. Most important, it is a very expensive alternative and both great profit and great losses could be the end product of this entry mode. Advantages of Acquisitions: They are quick to execute Acquisitions enable firms to preempt their competitors Managers may believe acquisitions are less risky than green-field ventures Disadvantages of Acquisitions: The acquiring firms often overpay for the assets of the acquired firm There may be a clash between the cultures of the acquiring and acquired firm Attempts to realize synergies by integrating the operations of the acquired and acquiring entities often run into roadblocks and take much longer than forecast There is inadequate pre-acquisition screening 3.0ANALYSIS AND FINDINGS Case study 1: McDonald’s used franchising as foreign entry mode In 1940, the first restaurant was opened by the McDonald brothers, Dick and Macin San Bernardino and California. Then Ray Kroc, a Chicago based salesman with a flair for marketing, became involved that the business really started to grow. He realised that Mc Donald’s, could be successful by using franchising, and could be exploited throughout the United States and beyond. Its first franchising was in Canada in 1967. In 2001, McDonald’s served over 16 billion customers, equivalent to a lunch and dinner for every man, woman and child in the world. McDonald’s global sales were over $38bn, making it by far the largest food service company in the world. McDonald’s success on rapid growth and expansion is due to franchising that are based on selling quality products cheaply and quickly around the world. In 2002, around 70% of McDonald’s are franchises. Mc Donald’s ownership advantage to go abroad is its brand name. The exceptional growth of Mc Donald’s is largely credited to the creation of its strong brand name identity. With the purpose of protecting its brand name, Mc Donald’s used radio and press advertisement to provide specific messages across the world emphasising on the quality of product ingredients. In addition to that Mc Donald’s carry out massive investment in sponsorship which is also a central part of the image building process, for example Football World cup and Olympic Games. The franchise agreement is that McDonalds, the franchisor, grants the right to sell McDonalds branded goods to someone w

Procrastination Essay -- essays research papers

Procrastination Procrastination is the act or habits of putting things off till the end out of laziness. Almost every student knows this dreaded word. They know if it becomes a habit, disaster happens with a sharp decline in school grades. But what they don’t realize is that procrastinating can actually benefit you in school. It can make you work harder, faster, and more efficiently on school assignments. Even life skills in the real world can be created from procrastinating. Procrastination can actually help you work harder, faster, and more efficiently. It sounds like an impossible thing, however if you’re like me or any other person that wants a fairly good mark on the next assignment, procrastinating can help you. While your friends are working hard on it, go play, and do the thing... Procrastination Essay -- essays research papers Procrastination Procrastination is the act or habits of putting things off till the end out of laziness. Almost every student knows this dreaded word. They know if it becomes a habit, disaster happens with a sharp decline in school grades. But what they don’t realize is that procrastinating can actually benefit you in school. It can make you work harder, faster, and more efficiently on school assignments. Even life skills in the real world can be created from procrastinating. Procrastination can actually help you work harder, faster, and more efficiently. It sounds like an impossible thing, however if you’re like me or any other person that wants a fairly good mark on the next assignment, procrastinating can help you. While your friends are working hard on it, go play, and do the thing...

Metaphor and Translation Essay

Abstract Metaphor has been widely discussed within the discipline of Translation Studies, predominantly with respect to translatability and transfer methods. It has been argued that metaphors can become a translation problem, since transferring them from one language and culture to another one may be hampered by linguistic and cultural differences. A number of translation procedures for dealing with this problem have been suggested, e. g.  , substitution (metaphor into different metaphor), paraphrase (metaphor into sense), or deletion. Such procedures have been commented on both in normative models of translation (how to translate metaphors) and in descriptive models (how metaphors have been dealt with in actual translations). After a short overview of how metaphor has been dealt with in the discipline of Translation Studies, this paper discusses some implications of a cognitive approach to metaphors for translation theory and practice. Illustrations from authentic source and target texts (English and German, political discourse) show how translators handled metaphorical expressions, and what effects this had for the text itself, for text reception by the addressees, and for subsequent discursive developments. # 2004 Elsevier B. V. All rights reserved. Keywords: Conceptual metaphor; English; French; German; Metaphorical expression; Translation Studies 1. Introduction Metaphor, as a typical feature of communication, presents a challenge for translation too, both for the practising translator and for its treatment in the discipline of Translation Studies. In the literature on translation, the two main issues have been, ? rstly, the translatability of metaphors, and secondly, the elaboration of potential translation * Tel. : ? 44-121-359-3611Ãâ€"4224; fax: ? 44-121-359-6153. ? E-mail address: c. schaeffner@aston. ac. uk (C. Schaffner). 0378-2166/$ – see front matter # 2004 Elsevier B. V. All rights reserved. doi:10. 1016/j. pragma. 2003. 10. 012 1254 ? C. Schaffner / Journal of Pragmatics 36 (2004) 1253–1269 procedures. In most cases, the argumentation is based on a traditional understanding of metaphor as a ?  gure of speech, as a linguistic expression which is substituted for another expression (with a literal meaning), and whose main function is the stylistic embellishment of the text. It is only recently that a cognitive approach to metaphor has been applied to Translation Studies. In this article, I want to illustrate on the basis of some examples from the language pair, English and German, what a cognitive approach could offer to the description of metaphors in translation. The discussion proceeds primarily from the perspective of the discipline of Translation Studies. In taking this approach, it is also possible to explore how the cross-linguistic and cross-cultural perspective of translation can contribute to metaphor theory. 2. The treatment of metaphor as a translation problem Translation and interpreting as activities have existed for many centuries, and there is a long tradition of thought and an enormous body of opinion about translation (cf. Delisle and Woodsworth, 1995; Robinson, 1997). But it was not until the second half of this century that Translation Studies developed into a discipline in its own right (cf. Holmes, 1988; Snell-Hornby et al.  , 1992). Although at ? rst conceived as a subdiscipline of applied linguistics, it has taken on concepts and methods of other disciplines, notably text linguistics, communication studies, sociolinguistics, psycholinguistics, pragmatics, comparative literature, and recently, cultural studies. Instead of a uni? ed theory, we have a multiplicity of approaches, each of which focuses on speci? c aspects of translation, looks at the product or the process of translation from a speci? c angle, and uses speci? c ? terminology and research methods (cf. Chesterman, 2000; Gentzler, 1993; Schaffner,  1997b; Stolze, 1994). The phenomenon of metaphor has regularly been of concern to translation scholars who have argued about problems of transferring metaphors from one language and culture to another. The arguments brought forward need to be seen within the context of a heterogeneous discipline, i. e. , with respect to the speci? c model of translation within which the scholars approached their topic. I will therefore begin by giving a brief overview of the most prominent approaches to translation and provide a short account of how metaphor has been dealt with in the discipline of Translation Studies. Linguistics-based approaches de? ne translation as transferring meanings, as substituting source language (SL) signs by equivalent target language (TL) signs (e. g. , Catford, 1965). The source text (ST) is to be reproduced in the TL as closely as possible, both in content and in form. Since the aim of a translation theory has often been seen as determining appropriate translation methods, language systems (as langues) have been studied in order to ? nd the smallest equivalent units (at the lexical and grammatical levels) which can be substituted for each other in an actual text (as parole). Textlinguistic approaches de? ne translation as source text induced target text (TT) production (Neubert, 1985). The text itself is treated as the unit of translation, and it is stressed that a text is always a text in a situation and in a culture. Therefore, consideration needs to be given to situational factors, genre or text-typological conventions, addressees’ knowledge and expectations, and text functions. The central notion of equivalence is now ? C. Schaffner / Journal of Pragmatics 36 (2004) 1253–1269 1255 applied to the textual level, and de? ned as communicative equivalence, i. e., a relationship between the target text and the source text in which TT and ST are of equal value in the respective communicative situations in their cultures. Functionalist approaches de? ne translation as a purposeful activity (cf. Nord, 1997), as ? ? transcultural interaction (Holz-Manttari, 1984), as production of a TT which is appropriate for its speci? ed purpose (its skopos) for target addressees in target circumstances (cf. Vermeer’s ‘skopos theory’, e. g. , Vermeer, 1996). The actual form of the TT, its textual– linguistic make-up, is therefore dependent on its intended purpose, and not (exclusively) on the structure of the ST. The yardstick for assessing the quality of the target text is, thus, its appropriateness for its purpose, and not the equivalence to the source text. More modern linguistic approaches acknowledge that translation is not a simple substitution process, but rather the result of a complex text-processing activity. However, they argue that translations need to be set apart from other kinds of derived texts, and that the label ‘translation’ should only be applied to those cases where an equivalence relation obtains between ST and TT (House, 1997; Koller, 1992). Equivalence is probably the most controversial notion in Translation Studies. Some translation scholars reject this notion outright, arguing that by retaining ‘equivalence’ in the vocabulary, translation scholars sidestep the issue that ‘‘it is difference, not sameness or transparency or equality, which is inscribed in the operations of translation’’ (Hermans, 1998: 61). This view is also expressed in current approaches that are inspired by postmodern theories and Cultural Studies, which argue that texts do not have any intrinsically stable meaning that could be repeated elsewhere (e. g. , Arrojo, 1998; Venuti, 1995). For Venuti, the target text should be ‘‘the site where a different culture emerges, where a reader gets a glimpse of a cultural other’’ (Venuti, 1995: 306). In the course of its development, the focus of Translation Studies has, thus, shifted markedly from linguistic towards contextual and cultural factors which affect translation. Major inspiration for the development of the discipline has also come from research conducted within the framework of Descriptive Translation Studies (DTS), aiming at the description of translating and translations ‘‘as they manifest themselves in the world of our experience’’ (Holmes, 1988: 71). Research here includes studying the socio-historical conditions in which translations are produced and received, identifying regularities in translators’ behaviour and linking such regularities to translation norms which operate both in the social event and the cognitive act of translation (cf. Toury, 1995). DTS and postmodern theories thus de? ne translation as norm-governed behaviour (Toury, 1995) and/or a cultural political practice (Venuti, 1996: 197). The contrast between normative models (what a TT should look like) and descriptive models  (what TTs actually do look like) is also evident in the discussions about metaphor translation. Metaphor has traditionally been described as an individual linguistic phenomenon (a metaphorical expression) which can become a translation problem. Most scholars use the same terms as those applied in semantic theories (cf. Goatly, 1997), i. e. , terms like ‘image’ or ‘vehicle’ for the conventional referent, ‘object’ or ‘topic’ for the actual unconventional referent, and ‘sense’, ‘ground’, or ‘tenor’ for the similarities and/or analogies involved. Newmark (1981) explains these terms on the basis of the example rooting out the faults as follows: the object, that is, the item which is described by the metaphor, is faults. The image, that is, the item in terms of which the object is described, 1256 ? C. Schaffner / Journal of Pragmatics 36 (2004) 1253–1269 is rooting up weeds. The metaphor, that is, the word(s) used in the image, is rooting out, and the sense, which shows in what particular aspects the object and the image are similar, is (a) eliminate; and (b) do so with tremendous personal effort. He argues that in translating this ?  metaphor, a verb such as eliminer in French, or entfernen in German, would not do, ‘‘unless the phrase was of marginal importance in the text’’ (Newmark, 1981: 85). These arguments re? ect the two main concerns in Translation Studies, the translatability of metaphors, and procedures to transfer them from a source language into a target language. In equivalence-based approaches, the underlying assumption is that a metaphor, once identi? ed, should ideally be transferred intact from SL to TL. However, cultural differences between SL and TL have often been mentioned as preventing such an intact transfer. For Dagut (1976: 22), a metaphor is an ‘‘individual ? ash of imaginative insight’’, a creative product of violating the linguistic system, and as such, highly culture speci? c. Its main function is to shock its readers by creating an aesthetic impact. In Dagut’s view, the effect of shock is to be retained in a translation, and if linguistic and cultural factors hinder this effect, then he maintains that the metaphor cannot be translated. For illustration, he uses Hebrew metaphors translated into English, and shows, for example, how Hebrew metaphors are closely connected to Biblical stories and thus culture speci?  c (as in the case of the verb form ne’ekad—‘bound’, i. e. , metaphorically, ‘bound like Isaac for the sacri? ce’). Most authors agree that the image in the ST cannot always be retained in the TT (e. g. , because the image that is attached to the metaphor is unknown in the TL, or the associations triggered by the SL metaphor get lost in the TL), and subsequently several translation procedures have been suggested as alternative solutions to the ideal of reproducing the metaphor intact. For example, van den Broeck (1981: 77) lists the following possibilities. 1. Translation ‘sensu stricto’ (i.e. , transfer of both SL tenor and SL vehicle into TL). 2. Substitution (i. e. , replacement of SL vehicle by a different TL vehicle with more or less the same tenor). 3. Paraphrase (i. e. , rendering a SL metaphor by a non-metaphorical expression in the TL). Van den Broeck provides these modes of metaphor translation as a tentative scheme, i. e. , as theoretical possibilities. By linking them to categories of metaphor (lexicalized, conventional, and private metaphors) and to their use and functions in texts, he presents some hypotheses about translatability. In the tradition of DTS, van den Broeck sees the task of a translation theory not in prescribing how metaphors should be translated, but in describing and explaining identified solutions. He therefore argues that detailed descriptive studies of how metaphors are actually translated would be required to test the suggested modes and his hypotheses. In contrast to van den Broeck’s descriptive framework, Newmark’s translation procedures are presented in a prescriptive way, with the aim of providing principles, restricted rules, and guidelines for translating and translator training. He distinguishes between ? ve ? types of metaphors: dead, cliche, stock, recent, and original. In his discussion of stock metaphors, he proposes seven translation procedures, which have frequently been taken up in the literature. These procedures are arranged in order of preference (Newmark, 1981: ? C. Schaffner / Journal of Pragmatics 36 (2004) 1253–1269 1257 87–91). Newmark’s focus is on the linguistic systems, and his arguments can be linked to the substitution theory of metaphor (cf. Goatly, 1997: 116f). (All examples given here for illustration are Newmark’s own examples). 1. Reproducing the same image in the TL, e. g. , golden hair—goldenes Haar. 2. Replacing the image in the SL with a standard TL image which does not clash with the ? TL culture, e. g. , other fish to fry—d’autres chats a fouetter. ? 3. Translating metaphor by simile, retaining the image, e. g. , Ces zones cryptuaire ou s’ ? ? elabore la beaute. —The crypt-like areas where beauty is manufactured. According to Newmark, this procedure can modify the shock of the metaphor. 4. Translating metaphor (or simile) by simile plus sense (or occasionally a metaphor plus ? sense), e. g.  , tout un vocabulaire molieresque—a whole repertoire of medical quackery ` such as Moliere might have used. Newmark suggests the use of this compromise solution in order to avoid comprehension problems; however, it results in a loss of the intended effect. 5. Converting metaphor to sense, e. g. , sein Brot verdienen—to earn one’s living. This procedure is recommended when the TL image is too broad in sense or not appropriate to the register. However, emotive aspects may get lost. 6. Deletion, if the metaphor is redundant. 7. Using the same metaphor combined with sense, in order to enforce the image. Toury (1995: 81ff) points out that these translation procedures start from the metaphor as identified in the ST, and that the identified metaphor (the metaphorical expression) is treated as a unit of translation. He argues that from the perspective of the TT, two additional cases can be identified: the use of a metaphor in the TT for a non-metaphorical expression in the ST (non-metaphor into metaphor), and the addition of a metaphor in the TT without any linguistic motivation in the ST (zero into metaphor). This view deals with metaphor not as a translation problem (of the ST), but as a translation solution. In his descriptive study of ? the translation of verb metaphors (for the language pair Swedish and German), Kjar (1988) included such an inverse analysis as well, but did not go much beyond a presentation of statistical findings. Kurth’s (1995) findings, too, are derived from a descriptive analysis of actual translations. Based on the interaction theory of metaphor (cf. Goatly, 1997: 117ff) and on scenes and frames semantics as applied to translation (Vannerem and Snell-Hornby, 1986), he illustrates how several metaphors interact in the construction of a macro-scene. In German translations of works by Charles Dickens, he shows which TL frames have been chosen for a SL scene (e. g. , ‘humanizing’ objects by anthropomorphical metaphors) and what the consequences are for the effect of the text (e. g. , weakening of an image). 3. Metaphors from the cognitive linguistics perspective: consequences for Translation Studies The cognitive approach to metaphor, largely initiated by Lakoff and Johnson’s Metaphors We Live By (1980), can contribute new insights into translation as well. This approach, however, is only gradually taking root within Translation Studies (e. g. , Al? Harrasi, 2000; Cristofoli et al. , 1998; Schaffner, 1997a, 1998; Stienstra, 1993). The main 1258 ? C. Schaffner / Journal of Pragmatics 36 (2004) 1253–1269 argument of the cognitive approach is that metaphors are not just decorative elements, but rather, basic resources for thought processes in human society. Metaphors are a means of understanding one domain of experience (a target domain) in terms of another (a source domain). The source domain is mapped onto the target domain, whereby the structural components of the base schema are transferred to the target domain (ontological correspondences), thus also allowing for knowledge-based inferences and entailments (epistemic correspondences). Such models are largely encoded and understood in linguistic terms. In cognitive linguistics, the term ‘metaphor’ is used to refer to this conceptual mapping (e. g. , ANGER IS THE HEAT OF A FLUID IN A CONTAINER),1 and the term ‘metaphorical expression’ is used to refer to an individual linguistic expression that is based on a conceptualization and thus sanctioned by a mapping (e.g. , ‘I gave vent to my anger’). Establishing the conceptualization on which a particular metaphorical expression is based is relevant to translation, too. Such a perspective provides a different answer to the question of the translatability of metaphors. Translatability is no longer a question of the individual metaphorical expression, as identi? ed in the ST, but it becomes linked to the level of conceptual systems in source and target culture. In what follows, some implications of  such a cognitive approach to metaphors for translation theory and practice are illustrated. On the basis of authentic source and target texts, I describe how translators have handled metaphorical expressions. This description is linked to a consideration of the effects of such translation solutions on the text and its reception by the addressees. The examples come from political texts, and the languages involved are primarily English and German. The focus of this paper is the description and explanation of identi? ed translation solutions. It is thus related to DTS, but, in contrast to van den Broeck, for example, I do not pretend to test pre-established translation schemes or hypotheses. My starting point is authentic TT structures for metaphorical expressions in STs. That is, the description is predominantly product-oriented,2 with the explanation being linked to text, discourse, and culture. In my conclusion, I point out some ways in which the discipline of Translation Studies can contribute to metaphor theory. 4. Metaphor and text In the following two examples, we have an identical metaphorical expression in the ? German ST, Brucke (bridge), but it has been handled differently in the TTs (both extracts come from speeches by the former German Chancellor Helmut Kohl): 1 In this metaphor, ontological correspondences are, for instance, ‘the container is the body’, ‘the heat of fluid is the anger’; epistemic correspondences are then, for instance, ‘when the fluid is heated past a certain limit, pressure increases to the point at which the container explodes’ (source) and ‘when anger increases past a ? certain limit, pressure increases to the point at which the person loses control’ (cf. Kovecses, 1986: 17f). 2 A process-oriented analysis, i. e. , an analysis of the actual cognitive processes in the translator’s mind during the translation act, would add valuable insights as well. Moreover, such a perspective would also test the validity of Lakoff and Johnson’s (1980) theory. For example, one could test whether translators, as text receivers and interpreters, actually do access conceptual metaphors when constructing interpretations of metaphorical expressions (cf. Glucksberg, 2001), and how this might influence the decision-making for the TT structure. Research into translation processes (e. g. , most recently Danks et al., 1997; Kussmaul, 2000; Tirkkonen-Condit ? and Jaaskelainen, 2000) has not yet been conducted primarily with metaphors in mind. ? C. Schaffner / Journal of Pragmatics 36 (2004) 1253–1269 1259 ? ? Wir wollen die Brucke uber den Atlantik auf allen Gebieten—Politik und Wirtschaft, Wissenschaft und Kultur—festigen und ausbauen. We aim to strengthen and widen the transatlantic bridge in all spheres, in politics and commerce, science and culture. 3 ? So sind die amerikanischen Soldaten ein wichtiger Teil der Freundschaftsbrucke ? uber den Atlantik geworden. (literally: . . . an important component of the translatlantic bridge). The American forces in Germany are thus an important component of transatlantic friendship. (emphasis are mine) How (if at all) can traditional translation procedures account for these different solutions? Applying Newmark’s translation procedures, we could say that in the ? rst case, the procedure is metaphor for metaphor (i. e. , reproduction of the image), whereas in the second case the metaphor has been deleted. These texts would be examples of what Newmark calls ‘authoritative texts’, and in his guidelines to translators he states that in such texts, metaphors should be preserved. As a second criterion to guide the translator’s decision, Newmark suggests the importance of the metaphor in the text. The ? rst extract comes from Kohl’s speech on receiving the Honorary Freedom of the City of London (18 February 1998), the second one from his speech at the ceremony at Tempelhof Airport to commemorate the Berlin Airlift on the occasion of the visit of President Clinton (14 May ? 1998). The Berlin Airlift is known in German as Luftbrucke (literally: ‘bridge in the air’). In the London speech, the 50th anniversary of the Airlift is shortly mentioned, but it is not the ? actual topic of the speech. In the Tempelhof speech, however, the Luftbrucke is the actual topic, and it is used frequently in the short text, thus contributing to the structure of the text. Based on these considerations, Newmark’s recommendation presumably would be: metaphor into same metaphor in the ? rst case, but metaphor into sense in the second case. If we describe this authentic example on the basis of a cognitive approach, ? metaphorical expressions such as Brucke are considered ‘‘in the light of the metaphorical concept of which they are manifestations, and not as individual idioms to be ?tted into the target text as well as they can’’ (Stienstra, 1993: 217). In this case, one and the same historical event was conceptualized in different ways by different cultures, using different metaphors. The source domain of the English ‘airlift’ is a TRANSPORT domain, focusing on the medium (air), the action, and involving a direction (from–to). In the German ? Luftbrucke, the source domain is an ARCHITECTURAL STRUCTURE, focusing on the ? medium and the structural object. As said above, the anniversary of the Luftbrucke is the actual topic of Kohl’s Tempelhof speech; but is the bridge indeed the dominant metaphor in the text as a whole? In other words: what is the underlying conceptual metaphor by which ? the metaphorical expression Freundschaftsbrucke is sanctioned? A closer analysis of the text above shows that the argumentation is structured around the central idea of American–German friendship. In the ? rst ? ve paragraphs, Kohl gives an ? account of the historical event itself and of its political signi? cance. Luftbrucke occurs six 3 Translators are normally not identified by name in the case of translations being produced for the German government. 1260 ? C. Schaffner / Journal of Pragmatics 36 (2004) 1253–1269 times in these ? rst paragraphs, each time translated as Airlift, since each time it is used as a proper name. Kohl then links the historical aspect to the development of American– German friendship over the last 50 years, both at a personal level and at the governmental ? level. And it is here that he speaks of the Freundschaftsbrucke (exploiting the bridge image as a rhetorical means for the argumentative function of a political speech): [. . . ] in den vergangenen Jahrzehnten haben rund 7 Millionen amerikanische Soldaten bei uns in Deutschland Dienst getan. Gemeinsam mit ihren Familien waren es etwa 15 Millionen Amerikaner, die fernab ihrer Heimat, ihren Beitrag zur ? Erhaltung von Frieden und Freiheit leisteten [. . . ]. Im taglichen Kontakt mit ihren ? ? deutschen Nachbarn haben sie viele personliche Beziehungen geknupft. Diese wurden ? [. . . ] eines der Fundamente der engen Freundschaft zwischen unseren Volkern. Es ? ? ? sind ja nicht zuletzt die alltaglichen Erfahrungen und Eindrucke, die personlichen und menschlichen Begegnungen, die in diesen Jahrzehnten die deutsch-amerikanischen ? Beziehungen mit Leben erfullt haben. So sind die amerikanischen Soldaten ein ? ? wichtiger Teil der Freundschaftsbrucke uber den Atlantik geworden. 4 What we can see from such an analysis is that Kohl’s speech is structured around a metaphorical understanding of friendship: Germany and the USA are friends. Seeing the state metaphorically as a person seeking friendship involves a metaphorical conception of closeness. Thus, all references in Kohl’s speech to Kontakte, Beziehungen, Begegnungen (contacts, a dense network of personal ties, personal encounters) can be described as metaphorical expressions that are sanctioned by the conceptual metaphors A STATE IS A PERSON and INTIMACY IS CLOSENESS (see also Gibbs’ comments on primary metaphors (Gibbs et al., this issue)). One of the means which allows friends who live far apart to experience close personal contact, is a bridge. A bridge links two endpoints, here the USA and Germany (ontological correspondence), thus providing an opportunity for mutual contact (epistemic correspondence). ? From such a conceptual perspective, we can say that rendering Freundschaftsbrucke as transatlantic friendship does not really constitute a case of metaphor deletion. The conceptual metaphors A STATE IS A PERSON and INTIMACY IS CLOSENESS are present in both ST and TT. It is these conceptual metaphors that are relevant for the structure of the text and its overall function as a political speech. At the macro-level, the conceptual metaphors are identical in ST and TT, although at the micro-level a speci? c ? metaphorical expression in the ST (Freundschaftsbrucke) has not been rendered in exactly the same way in the TT. However, transatlantic friendship in the TT can equally be characterized as a metaphorical expression which is justi? ed by the same conceptual metaphors. 4 The authentic English translation of this passage reads as follows: Over the past decades some seven million American servicemen have been stationed in Germany. Together with their families, that makes about 15 million Americans who, in this country far from home, have helped, [. . . ] to safeguard peace and liberty. In their day-to-day contacts with Germans the American community here has built up a dense network of personal ties central to the close friendship between our two nations. It is not least this wealth of personal encounters, these everyday impressions and  experiences which make German–American relations a meaningful part of daily life. The American forces in Germany are thus an important component of transatlantic friendship. ? C. Schaffner / Journal of Pragmatics 36 (2004) 1253–1269 1261 If we take a cognitive approach, a ? rst aspect of metaphors in translation can therefore be described as follows: not all individual manifestations of a conceptual metaphor in a source text are accounted for in the target text by using the same metaphorical expression. This argument is in line with one of Stienstra’s (1993) ? ndings. On the basis of several Bible translations into English and Dutch, she illustrates that the conceptual metaphor YHWH IS THE HUSBAND OF HIS PEOPLE, which is a central metaphor of the Old Testament, was preserved at the macro-level, even if speci? c textual manifestations were changed or not accounted for in each individual case. There is another example in Kohl’s Tempelhof speech which provides insights into strategic uses of metaphors and their treatment in translation. In elaborating on German– American partnership in the world of today and tomorrow, Kohl says: ? Unser Ziel, Herr Prasident, ist es, den Bau des Hauses Europa zu vollenden. Dabei wollen wir, da? unsere amerikanischen Freunde in diesem Haus auf Dauer ihre feste Wohnung haben. (literally: [. . . ] We want our American friends to have a permanent apartment in this house. Our goal is to complete the construction of the European house—with a permanent right of residence for our American friends—and enable the family of European nations to live together side by side in lasting peace. (italics are mine) From a cognitive perspective, we can say that the metaphorical expressions Haus Europa, Haus, and feste Wohnung are all sanctioned by the underlying conceptual metaphor EUROPE IS A HOUSE, which is an example of an ontological metaphor (Lakoff and Johnson, 1980). Whereas in the ST, the structural elements have been lexicalized, the TT has made the entailments of the source domain explicit; that is, an apartment ensures a right of residence, and these are epistemic correspondences. Both ST and TT remain within the conceptual metaphor of a house, while the additional information in the TT  (‘‘and enable the family of European nations to live together side by side in lasting peace’’) can be seen as elaborating on this metaphor, thus also providing a conceptual link to the metaphor INTIMACY IS CLOSENESS which structures Kohl’s speech. Identifying metaphors and describing target text pro? les is a legitimate research aim for a translation scholar. An additional question concerns the causes and effects of particular translations (cf. Chesterman, 1998). I will illustrate this ? rst, by reference to the Haus Europa again, and then by commenting on the effects of a speci? c translation solution (fester Kern—hard core). Such an analysis needs to put the text into its historical context, accounting for its function, its addressees, etc. Metaphor is, thus, no longer a translation phenomenon of one particular text, but becomes an intertextual phenomenon. 5. Metaphor as an intertextual phenomenon The metaphorical expression Haus Europa ? gured prominently in the discourse of Helmut Kohl in the 1990s, speci? cally with reference to issues of European integration. Actually, the metaphor of the common European house was introduced into political discourse in the mid-1980s by the then leader of the Soviet Union Mikhail Gorbachev. As a 1262 ? C. Schaffner / Journal of Pragmatics 36 (2004) 1253–1269 re? ection of the ‘new political thinking’ in the Communist Party under Gorbachev, the conceptual metaphor EUROPE IS A HOUSE was to represent the idea of all European states, East and West of the ‘Iron Curtain’, living and working together in peaceful coexistence. The base schema for Gorbachev’s metaphor was a multi-story apartment block with several entrances, in which several families live, each in their own ? ats (i. e. , the prototypical house in bigger Russian towns). In his own discourse, Gorbachev hardly elaborated on the structural elements of a house, but most frequently stressed the rules and norms for living together in this common house. The rules of the house have to guarantee that every family can live their own lives, without interference from their neighbours, so that the common house is protected and kept in order (cf. Chilton, 1996; ? Schaffner, 1996). The Russian metaphorical expression dom was rendered as house in English5 and as Haus in German political discourse in reporting on Gorbachev’s new political ideas and aims, which were not readily welcomed in Western European countries. But more often than being rejected outright, the metaphor EUROPE IS A HOUSE was taken up and conceptually challenged. In British political discourse (especially in the second half of the 1980s), the structural aspects dominated in the argumentation, determined by features of the prototypical English house. That is, there are references to detached and semi-detached houses, to fences, and to questions such as who is to live in which room or on which ? oor.